Endocrine system
Contents
1 Function
1.1 Types of signaling
1.1.1 Endocrine
1.1.2 Autocrine
1.1.3 Paracrine
1.1.4 Juxtacrine
2 Role in disease
3 Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones
3.1 Hypothalamus
3.2 Pineal body (epiphysis)
3.3 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
3.3.1 Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
3.3.2 Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
3.3.3 Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)
3.4 Thyroid
3.5 Parathyroid
3.6 Heart
3.7 Striated muscle
3.8 Skin
3.9 Adipose tissue
3.10 Stomach
3.11 Duodenum
3.12 Liver
3.13 Pancreas
3.14 Kidney
3.15 Adrenal glands
3.15.1 Adrenal cortex
3.15.2 Adrenal medulla
3.15.3 Testes
3.16 Ovary
3.17 Placenta (when pregnant)
3.18 Uterus (when pregnant)
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
The endocrine system is a system of small organs that involve the
release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The
endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth,
development and puberty, and tissue function and also plays a part in
determining mood.[1] The field of study that deals with disorders of
endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the wider field of
internal medicine.
Major endocrine glands. (Male on the left, female on the right.) 1.
Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal
gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes
Function
The endocrine system is an information signal system much like the
nervous system. However, the nervous system uses nerves to conduct
information, whereas the endocrine system mainly uses blood vessels as
information channels. Glands located in many regions of the body release
into the bloodstream specific chemical messengers called hormones.
Hormones regulate the many and varied functions of an organism, e.g.,
mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well
as sending messages and acting on them.
Types of signaling
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine
signaling. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine,
autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling.[2] Purely neurocrine signaling
between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous
system.
Endocrine
A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually
referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
axis. Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal
glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless
nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular
vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine
glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the
gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or
a hollow lumen.
Autocrine
Other signaling can target the same cell.
Paracrine
Paracrine signaling is where the target cell is nearby.
Juxtacrine
Juxtacrine signals are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or
lipid components integral to the membrane and are capable of affecting
either the emitting cell or cells immediately adjacent.
Role in disease
Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[3] including conditions
such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine
disease is characterized by dysregulated hormone release (a productive
pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling
(hypothyroidism), lack or destruction of a gland (diabetes mellitus type
1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural
enlargement in a critical site such as the neck (toxic multinodular
goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss
of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction.
Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of
suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.
Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands.
Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the
hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.
Cancer can occur in endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, and hormones
have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for
example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain
breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all
been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of
oncogenesis.[4]
Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones
Hypothalamus
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons
Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary (primarily)
Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic
area Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
Growth hormone-releasing hormone GHRH Neuroendocrine neurons of the
Arcuate nucleus Release GH from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing hormone CRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons
Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Magnocellular neurosecretory cells Contraction of cervix and vagina
Involved in orgasm, trust between people.[5] and circadian homeostasis
(body temperature, activity level, wakefulness).[6] release breast milk
Vasopressin ADH or AVP Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Increases
permeability of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water in
the nephrons of the kidney, thus increasing water reabsorbtion.
Somatostatin, also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone SS or GHIH
Neuroendocrine cells of the Periventricular nucleus Inhibit release of
GH and TSH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine PIH or DA Dopamine neurons of
the arcuate nucleus Inhibit release of prolactin and TSH from anterior
pituitary
Prolactin-releasing hormone PRH
Release prolactin from anterior pituitary
Pineal body (epiphysis)
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Melatonin (Primarily) Pinealocytes antioxidant and causes drowsiness
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Growth hormone GH Somatotropes stimulates growth and cell reproduction
Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver
Prolactin PRL Lactotropes milk production in mammary glands
sexual gratification after sexual acts
Adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotropin ACTH Corticotropes
synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in
adrenocortical cells
Lipotropin
Corticotropes lipolysis and steroidogenesis,
stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin TSH Thyrotropes stimulates
thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH Gonadotropes In female: stimulates
maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary.
In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding
protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotropes In female: ovulation
In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone
Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
f ing Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Oxytocin
Magnocellular neurosecretory cells Contraction of cervix and vagina
Involved in orgasm, trust between people.[5] and circadian homeostasis
(body temperature, activity level, wakefulness).[6] release breast milk
Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone AVP or ADH Magnocellular
neurosecretory cells retention of water in kidneys
moderate vasoconstriction
Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior
lobe, merely stored.
Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH Melanotroph melanogenesis by
melanocytes in skin and hair.
Thyroid
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Triiodothyronine T3 Thyroid epithelial cell potent form of thyroid
hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to
catecholamines,
affect protein synthesis
Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine T4 Thyroid epithelial cells less active
form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity
to catecholamines,
affect protein synthesis, often functions as a prohormone
Calcitonin
Parafollicular cells Construct bone
reduce blood Ca2+
Parathyroid
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Parathyroid hormone PTH Parathyroid chief cell increase blood Ca2+:
*indirectly stimulate osteoclasts
Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney
activate vitamin D
(Slightly) decrease blood phosphate:
decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones
activate vitamin D
Heart
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Atrial-natriuretic peptide ANP Cardiac myocytes Reduce blood pressure
by:
reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and
fats
Brain natriuretic peptide BNP Cardiac myocytes (To a lesser degree than
ANP) reduce blood pressure by:
reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and
fats
Striated muscle
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Thrombopoietin Myocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce
platelets[7]
Skin
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3)
Inactive form of Vitamin D3
Adipose tissue
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Leptin (Primarily) Adipocytes decrease of appetite and increase of
metabolism.
Estrogens[8] (mainly Estrone) Adipocytes
Stomach
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Gastrin (Primarily)
G cells Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin
P/D1 cells Stimulate appetite,
secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland
Neuropeptide Y NPY
increased food intake and decreased physical activity
Secretin
S cells Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal
Brunner’s glands
Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice
Somatostatin
D cells Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin,
motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory
polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon
Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and
blood flow within the intestine.[9]
Histamine
ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin
X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach[10]
Duodenum
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Cholecystokinin I cells Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas
Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant
Liver
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily) IGF Hepatocytes
insulin-like effects
regulate cell growth and development
Angiotensinogen and angiotensin
Hepatocytes vasoconstriction
release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.
Thrombopoietin
Hepatocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[7]
Pancreas
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Insulin (Primarily) ss Islet cells Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and
glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood
intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other
anabolic effects
Glucagon (Also Primarily) a Islet cells glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis in liver
increases blood glucose level
Somatostatin d Islet cells Inhibit release of insulin[11]
Inhibit release of glucagon[11] Suppress the exocrine secretory action
of pancreas.
Pancreatic polypeptide PP cells Unknown
Kidney
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Renin (Primarily) Juxtaglomerular cells Activates the renin-angiotensin
system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO) Extraglomerular mesangial cells Stimulate
erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)
Active form of vitamin D3
Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract
and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Thrombopoietin
stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[7]
Adrenal glands
Adrenal cortex
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol) zona fasciculata and zona reticularis
cells Stimulation of gluconeogenesis
Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization
of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in
adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone) Zona glomerulosa cells Increase
blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily)
Potassium and H+ secretion in kidney.
Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone) Zona fasciculata and Zona
reticularis cells Virilization, anabolic
Adrenal medulla
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily) Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight
response:
Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by
increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing
catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
Dilate the pupils
Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion)
Suppress immune system
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight
response:
Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by
increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased
blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
Dopamine Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin Chromaffin cells Regulate pain
Testes
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Androgens (chiefly testosterone) Leydig cells Anabolic: growth of muscle
mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength,
Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of
voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.
Estradiol Sertoli cells Prevent apoptosis of germ cells[12]
Inhibin Sertoli cells | Inhibit production of FSH
Ovary
These originate either from the ovarian follicle or the corpus luteum.
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Progesterone Granulosa cells, theca cells Support pregnancy[13]:
Convert endometrium to secretory stage
Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm.
Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo
Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[13]
Inhibit lactation
Inhibit onset of labor.
Other:
Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels
Increase core temperature during ovulation[14]
Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus)
Anti-inflammatory
Reduce gall-bladder activity[15]
Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell
oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy
Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts
Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and
skin
Promote healing by regulating collagen
Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin
Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen
Androstenedione Theca cells Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainly estradiol) Granulosa cells Structural:
Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics
Accelerate height growth
Accelerate metabolism (burn fat)
Reduce muscle mass
Stimulate endometrial growth
Increase uterine growth
Maintain blood vessels and skin
Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation
Protein synthesis:
Increase hepatic production of binding proteins
Coagulation:
Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III,
plasminogen
Increase platelet adhesiveness
Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth
Decrease LDL, fat deposition
Fluid balance:
Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention
Increase growth hormone
Increase cortisol, SHBG
Gastrointestinal tract:
Reduce bowel motility
Increase cholesterol in bile
Melanin:
Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin
Cancer:
Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers [16] (Suppression of production
in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.)
Lung function:
Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.[17]
Inhibin Granulosa cells Inhibit production of FSH from anterior
pituitary
Placenta (when pregnant)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Progesterone (Primarily)
Support pregnancy[13]:
Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus.
Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[13]
Inhibit lactation
Inhibit onset of labor.
Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids.
Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone
Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)
Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen
Human chorionic gonadotropin HCG Syncytiotrophoblast promote maintenance
of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy
Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.
Human placental lactogen HPL Syncytiotrophoblast increase production of
insulin and IGF-1
increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance
Inhibin
Fetal Trophoblasts suppress FSH
Uterus (when pregnant)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Prolactin PRL Decidual cells milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin
Decidual cells Unclear in humans and animals
References
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^ a b c d Placental Hormones
^ Physiology at MCG 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13
^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988).
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^ Hormonal Therapy
^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). “Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system
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